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I–O–3

Lung Deposition Estimates for Particles Generated from Liquid and Coil Based Mosquito Repellents

Pallavi Kothalkar, Manish Joshi, Arshad Khan and B K Sapra

Radiological Physics and Advisory Division

Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Mumbai- 400085, India

ABSTRACT : Pyrethroid based mosquito repellents are commonly used to protect humans against disease bearing mosquito vector. These repellents generate intense amount of particulates containing insecticides posing significant inhalation hazard. This study gives a comparison of mosquito repellent coils and liquid vaporizers in terms of particle emissions and hence their deposition in various regions of human lung.

Keywords : Mosquito repellents, Lung deposition, Particle size distribution.

Introduction

Pesticides have been extensively used for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes. In recent years, pyrethroids are being used widely in the form of vaporizing mats, coils, incense sticks and liquid vaporizers due to their good insecticidal activity, low mammalian toxicity and rapid biodegradation (Hutson et al, 1985). These repellents are commonly used in most houses throughout the year, during the night. As a result, adults and children are exposed to the vapor of allethrin together with other constituents of the Mosquito Repellents. A study by (Gupta et al, 1999b) revealed that inhalation of pyrethroid- based liquid Mosquito repellent for a short duration may have some toxic effects on the vital organs that are non- persistent in nature and could recover soon after cessation of exposure. Hence, care should be taken while using these repellents over long durations. Pyrethroid induced changes in the cholinesterase enzyme in blood and bronchio-alveolar lavage fluid (Jian et al, 1996). Prolonged use of Mosquito repellents has also been reported to cause convulsions exhibiting CNS toxicity in exposed infants beside other harmful manifestation such as corneal damage, shortness of breath, asthma and damage to liver (Briassoulis et al., 2001, Liu et al, 1988).

Commercially available pyrethroid-based liquid Mosquito repellent contains allethrin (3.6% w/v) as a main ingredient, along with deodorized kerosene (95.94 %) and di-butyl hydroxyl toluene (0.3 %) as stabilizer (Sinha et al, 2006). In various Mosquito repellents formulations, these pyrethroids are often combined with other undefined chemicals known as synergists, to increase potency, stability and persistence in the environment.

Although several studies have been carried out on examining the health impacts due to mosquito repellents, not much information is available in terms of particulate releases from them. In view of these, this study brings about the comparison of mosquito repellent

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coils and liquid vaporizers in terms of total released particulate concentrations and size distributions.

Experimental Methodology

Experiments were carried out in a chamber (1 m3 volume) as well as in a room sized environment (48 m3 volume) with liquid mosquito repellents and mosquito repellent coils commercially available in the market. Particles were released in the test volume in absence of any external ventilation and to record particle levels GRIMM Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (9.8 nm-870 nm) was used.

The main constituents of mosquito repellents is the insecticide chemically belonging to pyrethroid class, the compositions of both the coil and liquid repellent are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Composition characteristics of mosquito repellents

Using the measured airborne particle number concentrations, lognormal distributions were fitted to the data to obtain the Count Median Diameter (CMD) and Geometric Standard Deviation (GSD). Particle deposition in various part of the lung has been estimated using lung deposition model known as LUDEP. This model is based on Human Respiratory Tract Model given by ICRP-66 (International Commission on Radiation Protection), according to which human lung has been divided into five regions: Extra-thoracic regions -ET1 and ET2, Bronchial regions -BB and bb, and Alveolar Interstitial region- AI. The model calculates fractional deposition in various compartments of human lung using average rate of inhalation, intake and biological clearance processes.

Results

In terms of total particulate release liquid vaporizer was found to emit a total number concentration of 1645 and 3400 particles/cm3 and mosquito repellent coils released 3.2 x 106 and 2.2 x 105 particles/cm3 in chamber and room environment respectively (as shown in Fig 1 a &b).

Count Median Diameter (CMD) of the particle size distribution for liquid vaporizer was found to be 124 nm with a GSD of 2.4 in the chamber and CMD of 46 nm with a GSD of 2 in the room environment. For Mosquito repellent coil, CMD was found to be 207 nm with be GSD of 1.9 in the chamber and 117 nm as CMD and 1.7 as GSD in the room environment. The Mass Median Aerodynamic Diameters (MMAD) calculated using Hatch- Choate relationship, were obtained as was about 0.2 m for Liquid vaporizer and 0.3 m for Coil in the room environment. In terms of chemical release, liquid vaporizer was found to be releasing 12 mg of Prallethrin insecticide and the coil 18 mg of d trans Allethrin for an 8 hour deployment.

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Using the Lung deposition Model, deposition fraction in various compartments of lungs for an average Indian male with nose breathing in 100 % sleep activity have been evaluated. For liquid vaporizer, 16.78 % and for the coil based repellent about 15.5 % of the total particles were estimated to be depositing in the lungs for inhalation from the room environment. It could thus be inferred that a total mass concentration of 5.7 x 10-7 gm/cm3 in case of coil repellent and 9.6 x 10-10 gm/cm3 in case of liquid vaporizer would be available for lung deposition.

Figure 1. (a) and (b) Size distribution of particles generated by liquid mosquito repellent and mosquito repellent coil in room and chamber sized environments

As a result, total aerosol mass getting deposited in the lungs during 8 hr sleep in a room sized volume of 48 m3, total deposited mass is 9.9 g and 3.45 mg for liquid mosquito repellents and mosquito repellent coils respectively.

Conclusions

In terms of total deposited aerosols mass, mosquito coil is found to be causing high deposition in lungs as copious aerosols are released during its use. However, in case of liquid vaporizers small quantity of aerosol mass is found to be deposited because particle concentrations are not getting elevated above the background levels. Though chemical release is observed to be approximately the same in case of coils as well as vaporizers, the particle release is much higher in case of coils, which in no way aids the repelling of mosquitoes.

References

1.Hutson, D. H. and Roberts T. R., (eds) (1985)., Progress in pesticide Biochemistry and toxicology: Insecticides, Vol 5, Wiley-Interscience, New York.

2.Gupta A., Nigam, D., Shukla, G. S. and Agrawal, A. K., (1999b). Effect of pyrethroid based liquid mosquito repellent inhalation on the blood –brain barrier function and oxidative damage in selected organs of developing rats. J. Appl. Toxicology. 19, 67-72.

3.T. Jian and H. L. Tian (1996). Biochemical changes as biomarkers of pyrethroid toxicity in rats. J. Occup Health, 38, 54-56.

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4.Sinha, C., Seth, K., Islam, F., Chaturvedi, R. K., Shukla, S., Mathur, N., Srivastava, N. and Agrawal, A. K., (2006). Behavioral and neurochemical effects induced by pyrethroid- based mosquito repellent exposure in rat offsprings during prenatal and early postnatal period, Neurotoxicology and tetratology, 28, 472-481.

5.Briassoulis, G., Narlioglou, M. and Hatzis, T., (2001). Toxic encephalopathy associated with use of DEET insect repellents: a case analysis of its toxicity in children, Human Exp. Toxicol. 20, 8-14.

6.Liu, W. K., Sun, S. E., (1988). Ultra structural changes of tracheal epithelium and alveolar macrophages of rats exposed to mosquito coil smoke, Toxicology letters, 41, 145-157.

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I–O–4

Comparison of Indoor Air Pollution Measured in Different Microenvironments at IIT Kanpur

Rajmal Jat, Julie Parfait, Adrien Peuch and Tarun Gupta*

Environmental Engineering and Management, Indian Institute of Technology,

Kanpur, India

*Corresponding Author Email: tarun@iitk.ac.in

Introduction

Many studies all over the world have shown that indoor air pollution can affect the health of exposed people and may cause minor illness and discomfort like eye or throat irritation or even lead to chronic diseases like asthma and lung cancer (Dockery et al. 1993; Diaz-Sanchez et al. 1999; Oberdorster et al. 2000). Result from past air pollution assessment studies suggest that pollution due to ambient fine particles [PM2.5] and co- pollutant gases such as carbon monoxides (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3) and volatile Organic Compound (VOC) can lead to serious health problem, depending upon the concentrations and exposure durations of subjects to those pollutant. These subjects spend their time in variety of indoor microenvironments having different indoor air pollutant sources and ventilation conditions. Those pollutants can among other be the result of human activity such as cooking, smoking and can also vary according to the ventilation and aeration of the places.

Material and Methods

Sampling Strategy : In order to evaluate the personal exposure, ten indoor microenvironments were selected: class room, administration office, campus health centre, library, computer centre, IITK Campus main gate, two student rooms of different hall, Campus bank, Visitors Hostel. The sampling was divided into two part: first five places every Monday and Thursday and rest five places on the Tuesday and Friday. The configuration was followed for six weeks in summer, from June 2nd to July 14th. With one hour of sampling at each place at a given time.

During six weeks in the campus of IIT-Kanpur (India) the concentration of particulate matters (PM), CO, NO2, VOC in ten various places were measured with a Condensation Particle Counter (CPC) and a multiple gas monitor. A survey was carried out for different categories of people with different condition of living.

Sampling Methods : Three instruments were used to do the sampling and record the data of indoor air pollution. Concerning the particulate matter, a condensation Particle Counter (CPC) TSI was used. This portable equipment measures the concentration of particle matter with size range, 0.01 μm to 1.00 μm. The gas concentration is detected by a multiple gas monitor MultiRae.It does real time monitoring of NO2, CO, and VOC.

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Temperature sensor was also used to measure temperature at each sampling place at the time of sampling.

Online survey : In addition to the sampling, a survey was also conducted and sent to all the people of the campus via the internet to get information concerning the time spent by people in the various microenvironments. Some of the question also dealt with their health and their eventual sickness or troubles since their arrival in the campus in addition to question on their working condition (presence of decent ventilation, air-conditioner, printers etc.).

Following equation was used to relate personal exposure to different activities and time spent in different microenvironments:

E’ Time weighted average exposure

Cj’ Average concentration of pollutants in ‘j’ microenvironment.

T j’ Average time spent by individual of campus in ‘j’ micro environment.

Result and Discussion

The results of this study relating personal exposure to different activities and time spent in different microenvironments will be presented in the proposed poster presentation.

References

Diaz-Sanchez, D., Garcia, M.P., Wang, M., Jyrala, M. and Saxon, A. (1999) Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce sensitization to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 104, 1183-1188.

Dockery, D.W., Pope III, A., Xu, X., Spengler, J.D., Ware, J.H., Fay, M.E., Ferris, B.G. and Speizer, F.E. (1993) An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. New England J. Medicine, 329, 1753- 1759.

Oberdorster, G. (2000) Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 74, 1-8.

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I–O–5

Monitoring of Particulate Matter Concentrations in Naturally Ventilated Schools in Mumbai

Srinidhi Balasubramanian* and Rashmi S.Patil*

* Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai -400076

Corresponding Author – Email: rspatil@itb.ac.in / srinidhi.b@iitb.ac.in

Introduction

People generally spend 70-90% of their time indoors and the exposure to indoor pollutants is greater than outdoor pollutants. Poor air quality has adverse effect on susceptible population like women, children, elderly and the sick. Substantial body of scientific evidence links adverse impacts of poor indoor air quality (IAQ) in school microenvironment to health and performance of school children. (Mendell and Heath, 2004). Children spend nearly 8 hours a day in schools and their poor immunological and pulmonary development make them highly susceptible. High occupant densities and multifarious activities in schools pose special problem in managing air quality in schools. Countries like USA and UK and scientific communities like ASHRAE have proposed guidelines for maintaining IAQ in schools. However literature available under Indian conditions is limited. The trends exhibited by various parameters may differ from what has been reported in literature in developing countries. IAQ in schools is of major concern in India for several reasons like high occupant density, poor ventilation and proximity to heavy-traffic density roads. Limited resources and lack of funds is a major hurdle in improvement of air quality in schools. The problem needs serious attention since the health of the future citizens of India is largely dependant on the hygiene and quality of environmental conditions present in school.

The primary aim of this study is to characterize indoor air quality in representative naturally ventilated schools and identify the nature of pollutants and spatial trends exhibited. Personal exposure measurements have also been carried out and a correlation has been attempted with fixed monitor concentrations. The assessment will be useful for development of suitable mitigation strategies for improvement of IAQ in schools.

Methodology

In this study two naturally ventilated schools were chosen to represent the wide diversity in terms of governing body and infrastructure located within a 1 km radius in Powai, Mumbai. Kendriya Vidyalaya (KV) is a school with no prominent indoor sources and has an average student density of 6-8 students/ 10m2. Powai Municipal School (PMS) is a state-run school with mold infested walls, peeling plaster and use of chalk in classrooms with average student density of 10-14 students/ 10m2. Parallel assessment of IAQ parameters in four different environments namely classrooms, restrooms, corridors and ambient air under two conditions of non-occupancy and occupancy was conducted.

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The comfort parameters of temperature and relative humidity were measured using HOBO Temperature and RH sensor. Total outdoor air supply was estimated using CO2 as tracer gas with constant injection method. PM10 was measured using MiniVol samplers (Airmetrics) for 8 hours both indoors and outdoors. PM2.5 was measured indoors using Personal Environmental Monitor (SKC) and outdoors with MiniVol sampler. Personal exposure was measured using personal DataRAM (pDR1000AN for PM10 and pDR1200AN for PM2.5, Thermo Electron Corp.) at sampling interval of 2 minutes and was clipped to students breathing zone. Sampling has been carried out during August-September 2009.

Results

Figure 1(a) and 1(b) indicate the average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations respectively obtained during conditions of occupancy and non-occupancy. It is evident that there is a large variation during occupancy in PM10 levels in both schools. In KV and PMS, PM10 levels during occupancy are 3.5 times and 1.7 times the concentration on non-occupancy days respectively. During occupancy, students tend to transport coarse particulates like soil, pollen and dust that adhere to the clothes and shoes. Due to large student density, activities like walking tend to re-suspend large amount of coarse fractions. Levels of PM2.5 are seen to be nearly constant for both occupancy and non-occupancy conditions due to lack of prominent combustion sources in the vicinity except for traffic.

Figure 1. Variation of PM concentrations in KV and PMS (a) PM10 and (b) PM2.5

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Table 1 indicates the summary of the personal exposure measurements carried out during occupancy. PM levels at breathing zone are significantly higher than the values measured by area sampling. Peak concentrations and short term exposure levels (STEL) as measured by pDR represents the importance of infrastructure of a school with respect to levels of particulate matter and personal exposure. The poor infrastructure at Powai Municipal School will have a greater impact on the health of the students. Table 2 indicates comparison of total integrated exposure (time averaged concentrations in microenvironments) with personal exposure measurements.

Conclusion

Occupancy is the prime cause for elevated levels of coarse particulates. No significant variations have been observed for PM2.5 due to lack of prominent combustion sources. It has been observed that the personal exposure levels are higher than those measured by fixed monitors and poorly correlate with total integrated exposure. Poor air quality is observed in PMS largely attributed to the poor infrastructure. Major proportion of students who attend schools like PMS are from lower income group and are worse affected. Simple and cost-effective measures of adequate ventilation and proper housekeeping can mitigate poor indoor air quality in these schools. Further studies exploring chemical analysis and modeling of ventilation parameters

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will be conducted to develop suitable mitigation measures to maintain good IAQ in schools.

References

Mendell, M. J. and Heath, G., 2004, Summary of scientific findings on adverse effect of Indoor Environments on Students Health, Academic Performance and Attendance, U.S. Department of Education. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBNL-49567

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I–P–1

Distribution, Concentration and Composition of Indoor

Particulates

K. S. Patel1, R. Baghel1, N. K. Jaiswal1, H. Saathoff2, T. Leisner2, L. Jutta3, M. Georg3, J. Nicolás4 and E. Yubero4

1School of Studies in Chemistry, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, CG, India

2Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research (IMK), Atmospheric Aerosol Research Division (IMK- AAF), Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany

3Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1,D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany

4Atmospheric Pollution Laboratory,Applied Physics Department,Miguel Hernandez University, Avda de la Universidad S/N, 03202 Elche, Spain

Indoor air pollution is a major cause of respiratory infection in developing countries like India. The biomasses, agricultural residues and charcoal are the primary source of domestic energy in our country. The incense materials are used for ceremonial purposes to fragrance the environment for centuries. In addition, the coils are fumed to repel mosquito in urban houses. The indoor particulates are composed of organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), metals, ions, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc., and contribute significantly to indoor air pollution. This paper describes characterization of the OC, EC, water soluble ions(WSI) i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH) associated to the respirable particulate matter (PM10) in typical micro indoor environments (i.e. kitchen, sleeping room, temple and vehicle workshop) of Raipur city with respect to their concentrations and chemical compositions. A total 57 PM10 samples from different microenvironments were collected over the 47-mm quartz filter paper during the burning period using Partisol Model 2300 (Thermo Sci. and UC Davis, USA). The PM10 concentrations (n = 57) is ranged from 0.19 – 100 mg m-3. They are found to be associated with high fraction of organic carbon (49.1±5.1%), elemental carbon (13±4%), water soluble inorganic ions (10±12%) and PAH (411±458 mg kg-1). The sum of the total concentrations of thirteen PAH in the indoor PM is ranged from 0. 03 – 92 μg m-3 during burning of various types of the organic materials. The average concentration of the most toxic PAH i.e. benzo(a)pyrene is present at level of (0.34±0.44 μg m-3), much higher than the Indian limit value of 5 ng m-3. The influence of fuel material composition on the emissions of PAH, OC, EC and water soluble inorganic ions associated to the particulates are discussed.

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I–P–2

Development and Evaluation of a Photochemical Chamber, for Studying the Relative Toxicity of Primary and Secondary Diesel Exhaust Particles

Krishna Kumar Budania1, Tarun Gupta1* and Avinash Kumar Agarwal2

Department of 1Civil Engineering and Department of 2Mechanical Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

*Corresponding Author Email: tarun@iitk.ac.in

Introduction

Recently, researchers have stressed the need to investigate the toxicity of aged diesel exhaust particles and the bioactivity of real world doses of diesel exhaust. Current research has shown pulmonary, systemic, and cardiovascular effects being associated with several metals, including iron, zinc, vanadium, and nickel present in the diesel exhaust. Such research suggests a role for metal containing PM in alterations in heart rate and heart rate variability, and in the development of arrhythmias (Wellenius et al., 2002). Diesel exhaust is environmentally reactive and it has long been understood that the ambient interactions of hydrocarbons and NOx result in the formation of ozone and other potentially toxic secondary pollutants. It has been shown that atmospheric photochemical reactions of vehicular emissions can result in the formation of secondary organic aerosol, as well as in the alteration of the toxicity and mutagenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), most probably via the formation of nitro- or oxy-PAH derivatives (Mauderly, 2001; Seagrave et al., 2003).

Researchers have studied the toxicity of source emissions by exposing subjects to particles representative of these sources. A frequently used approach is to use direct diluted emissions. For instance, emissions from mobile sources have been tested using motor vehicles running in dynamometers (Gupta and Agarwal, 2009). Smog chambers are valuable tools for performing atmospheric chemistry experiments in a controlled environment. One significant class of experiments involves measuring particle growth (or evaporation) as a result of chemistry: these include SOA formation experiments and particle aging experiments (Dusek, 2000; Ruiz et al., 2007). Optimization of photochemical chamber for favorable SOA formation for temperature, relative humidity, residence time etc. and comparison of toxicity of primary and secondary exhausts is done.

Material and Methods

Design of photochemical or ageing chamber : The photochemical chamber has been recently built and is about 180 × 150 × 90 cm (L × H × W). For its walls, 50- m-thick fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) film is employed both in order to minimize wall reactions and allow sufficient UV-B light transmission. Walls are supported by a rigid aluminum structural framework, in such a way that only Teflon surfaces faced the interior. Stainless

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steel fittings are placed at each end, as inlets and outlets. 20 UV-B ( max ~ 313 nm) lamps are placed outside both larger sides of the chamber, at a distance of 10 cm from the walls. The chamber and lamps are located on wooden frame to protect personnel from ultraviolet (UV) light exposure. The temperature and relative humidity in the enclosure is monitored by means of a humidity measurement stick (model 605 H1, Testo India) inserted at the inlet of chamber.

The chamber is fed with a constant flow of the diluted emissions by assistance of partial tunnel flow meter, and mixed with both a flow of clean air carrying O3 and water vapor. The sum of the diluted emissions and ozone flows always was calculated on the basis of different residence time. Humidity inside chamber was maintained with the help of humidifier. Different instruments are used which will help in chemical characterization of primary and secondary particles of diesel exhaust by taking sufficient intake from inlet and out let of chamber through stainless fittings.

Results

The preliminary results from the development and testing of the newly designed photochemical chamber and the first few runs of the diesel engine exhaust and its ageing under artificial photochemical conditions will be presented in the form of a poster.

References

Dusek U (2000). Secondary Organic Aerosol – Formation Mechanisms and source contribution in Europe, Interim Report IR-00-066.

Gupta T and Agarwal AK (2009). Toxicology of Combustion Products, Fundamentals of Combustion, Wiley VCH (in press).

Mauderly JL (2001) Diesel emissions: Is more health research still needed? Toxicol. Sci. 62(1): 6-9.

Ruiz P, Lawrence J, Wolfson M, Ferguson S, Gupta T, Kang CM and Koutrakis P (2007). Development and Evaluation of a Photochemical Chamber to Examine the Toxicity of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions.

Inhalation Toxicology, 19 (8), 597-606.

Seagrave J, Mauderly JL and Sielkop SK (2003) In vitro relative toxicity screening of combined particulate and semivolatile organic fractions of gasoline and diesel engine emissions. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health-A 66(12): 1113-1132.

Wellenius GA, Saldiva PHN, Batalha JRF, Murthy GGK, Coull BA, Verrier RL and Godleski JJ (2002) Electrocardiographic changes during exposure to residual oil fly ash (ROFA) particles in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Tox. Sci. 66(2): 327-335.

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I–P–3

Role of Collaboration among Shopping Malls in Reducing Air-Pollution over Urban Areas

Purba Chatterji1, V.B.. Gupta1 and H.N. Dutta

1School of Future Studies & Planning, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore-452001

2Roorkee Engineering & Management Technology Institute,Shamli-247 774

Introduction

Aerosols are solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in air. They also include soot, dust and various other types of particles and are commonly known as air pollution.

Aerosols come from natural sources and through the combustion of fossil fuels, industrial processes and biomass burning. Aerosols have many positive roles in nature but at the same time, they can be hazardous to both human health and the environment.

In cities, the urban transport emissions are the main source of particulate matters. In Delhi, the data shows that of the total 3,000 metric tonnes of pollutants belched out every day, close to two-third (66%) is from vehicles. Similarly, the contribution of vehicles to urban air pollution is 52% in Bombay and close to one-third in Calcutta. Against 1.9 million vehicular populations in 1990 in Delhi, it rose to nearly 3.6 million in the year 2001 (i.e., an increase of nearly 87%). During the same period, Delhi’s population has increased by only 43% (from 9.5 million to 13.8 million) and road-length by merely 14% (from 22,000 Km to 25,000 Km) respectively. Situation is similar across a number of cities in India and in the developing world. This indicates the exigency of controlling vehicular pollution. The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe. Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased mortality and morbidity and is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, and nausea, irritation of eyes, various bronchial problems and visibility. The pollution from vehicles are due to discharges like CO, unburned HC, Pb compounds, NOx, soot, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and aldehydes, among others, mainly from the tail pipes. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 4 to 8% of deaths that occur annually in the world are related to air pollution and of its constituents, the WHO has identified SPM as the most sinister in terms of its effect on health.

Today, various potential solutions in terms of vehicle technology are available at the expert levels, but at the public level, traffic management and restraints on vehicle use (e.g. public transport, reductions in traffic congestion, traffic concentration, speed reductions, traffic cell scheme in urban central areas, reduction in traffic volumes and urban road pricing) still need serious efforts. In many countries, the efforts are made to coordinate various agencies so that even these unforeseen factors are controlled or governed in order to reduce the air-pollution.

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Observational Sites and Data

The ambient air quality of six places in Delhi for 2009-2010 is given below showing the increased level of Particulate Matter, Sox & Nox:

Above Table shows that Particulate matter is far more than the prescribed limits in all the places and this is due to the heavy traffic load..

Results

General shopping items in India are daily house hold items, furnishing item, garments etc. In India there are individual markets for different items so to purchase different items customer has to go to individual markets but in shopping malls, shopping of different items can be done under one roof.

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Discussion

Data given above shows that shopping mall can be a good option in decreasing the SPM & Particulate Matter10. Data reveals that if shopping is done by parking the vehicle at one place it reduces the emission levels. Pollution load will be decreased if people go for shopping at shopping malls, as in shopping mall all the shops are under one roof it also decrease total distance covered for single shop. We are a group dealing with the EIA of shopping malls for the past six years and it is found that with the advent of internet and ecommerce, many shopping malls are collaborating to sell items to different localities or areas through mutual cooperation so as to cut the cost of transportation. This cuts down the travel time of the vehicles, at the same time, a vehicle carries an optimum load so that many customers are served in just one trip. At individual levels, such efforts seem to be petty but at the city level, these are mammoth savings and we need to appreciate the role of shopping malls in reducing aerosol loading on the atmosphere. At the same time, each shopping mall cuts down the movement of vehicles, as everything is made available under one roof.

References

AQEG (2004). Nitrogen Dioxide in the United Kingdom, Report prepared by the Air Quality Expert Group for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs; Scottish Executive; Welsh Assembly Government; and Department of the Environment in Northern Ireland, March 2004.

Baggott S L, Brown L, Milne R, Murrells T P, Passant N and Watterson, J D (2004). UK Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 1990 to 2002. Annual report for submission under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, AEAT Report AEAT/ENV/R/1702 (April 2004), ISBN 0-9547136-2-1

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Barlow T J, Hickman A J and Boulter P (2001). Exhaust emission factors 2001: database and emission factors. TRL Report PR/SE/230/00. Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.

Boulter PG, Barlow TJ, Latham S and IS McCrae (2005). A review of the road transport emission factors used in the NAEI, UPR SEA 07/05 (unpublished project report)

EPEFE (1995). European Programme on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies. ACEA, EUROPIA Report.

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I–P–4

Heavy Metal Exposure to Children in Schools Near Roadsides in India

Mahima Habila , David D Masseya, Aditi Kulshresthaa, Jamson Masiha

and Ajay Tanejab

a School of Chemical Sciences, Department of Chemistry, St. John’s College, Agra, India bDepartment of Chemistry, Institute of Basic Sciences, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar University, Agra, India Email: mahi.habil@gmail.com, ataneja5@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT : Monitoring of heavy metals Zn, Ni and Pb in sedimented dust inside and outside the classrooms was carried out at a school near roadside, in Agra city, India. Sampling was done during winter season (Dec 2007 – Jan 2008), when the temperature range between 5°C to 22°C. The results obtained showed higher indoor levels than outdoor levels. To view the strength of indoor sources I/O ratios were evaluated, being highest for Pb. Indoor-outdoor correlations of Zn, Ni and Pb were measured to see the source of contamination. Strong correlations were observed for Ni and good for Zn. Whereas Pb showed weaker correlation due to due to renovation processes.

Introduction

Particulate matter, commonly referred to as dust, ranges in size 1 to 10,000 μm. Upon generation, dust can be carried by wind into sensitive environments like schools, where children take education. In recent decades, there has been a growing concern for the potential contribution of ingested dust to metal toxicity in humans. Young children are usually exposed to greater amount of dust than adults because of their repetitive hand to mouth activity and higher absorption rate of heavy metals from digestive system and also higher hemoglobin sensitivity to heavy metals (Hammond 1982), later resulting in acute and chronic toxicity.

A variety of metals like Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd from leaded gasoline, automobile exhaust, car components, tyre abrasions, lubricants and industrial and incinerator emissions have been found to contaminate roadway and parking slots at many sites studied (Varrica et al., 2003 and Tokalioglu and Kartal, 2006). Such contamination which generates dust due to vehicular and wind activity is particularly seen in developing countries. Sedimented dust on walls, roofs, window bases and shelves in classrooms and school buildings having muddy playgrounds could be one of the major pathways of childhood exposure. These sources and pathways of hazardous particles that enter and deposits in a classroom environment expose the occupants, particularly children, in schools to levels of contaminants above the safe limits. As the composition of settled dust is similar to atmospheric suspended particulates, it can be an indicator of pollutants such as heavy metal contamination in the atmosphere (Akhter et al., 1993). However, there is lack of information on sedimented dust and no regulations and guidelines are made for heavy metal contamination in schools in India, where school buildings are mostly naturally ventilated located near heavy trafficked roads with less cleanliness.

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The study will provide the elemental composition and concentrations in dust reflecting the characteristics of short term long term activities in school area.

Methodology

Sampling was done in Agra, the city of Taj Mahal, (27°10' N, 78°02’E) located in the central northern India. A school located near a traffic road surrounded by commercial activities was selected for monitoring heavy metals in sedimented dust. Dust samples were collected within the area of 0.25 meter x 1meter of window bases and shelves inside the classrooms and outside from unpaved ground outside the classroom as background levels.

Collected dust samples from indoor and outdoor were dried at 100°C for 1 hr and sieved. 2 gm of which was digested with 10ml of con. HNO3, leaving it overnight in glass beakers. The samples were ultrasonicated for 1 hr and heated for another 1 hr at hot plate, further filtering the sample with Whatman 41 filter paper. Heavy metals Zn, Ni and Pb were analyzed by an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAnalyst 100, Perkin Elmer). A questionnaire survey was also carried out to relate school environment and health effects experienced by the occupants to each other, which indicated persistence of symptoms like Dizziness, Itching, Headache, Dry flaking skin, Back pain, Cold & flu, high stress, eye irritation, sneezing, dry throat, difficulty in concentration, Drowsiness, allergies and shortness of breath.

Results and Discussions

Mean concentrations of Zn, Ni and Pb in sedimented dust collected inside and outside of classrooms are shown in Table 1. Due to cold climate doors and windows was usually closed and opened only to enter and to leave. Metal concentrations were higher indoor than their corresponding outdoor levels being highest for Zn, which may be due to dust from tyre abrasions and lubricating oil at roadside. Further indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios were evaluated to view the difference between indoor and outdoor levels. Table 1 shows the mean I/O ratios highest exceeding 1 for Pb (4.70) and for Zn (1.50) which may be due to the paints used during renovation and maintenance of school building and dust from car components carried from outside to indoor areas with the help of shoes and bags of

Table 1. Mean concentrations and indoor-outdoor ratios of metals (mg/kg)

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metal Zn, Ni and Pb concentration with the studies done in other countries was found that our outdoor concentrations are 1-3 times higher. Therefore in order to reduce children exposure to heavy metal poisoning caused by contaminated dusts, more attention should

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be directed towards the general cleanliness of the schools environment and its surrounding area. Thus new policies and affordable interventions are required to make school environment clean and healthy.

Acknowledgement

The study was financially helped by the project no: SR/S4/AS-262/05 of Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi. The authors wish to thanks Dr. F.M Prasad, Principal, St. John’s College, Agra and Dr. Ashok Kumar, Head, Department of Chemistry, St. John’s College, Agra for providing us necessary facilities.

References

1.Hammond, P.C., 1982. Metabolism of lead. In: Chisolm, J.J., O’Hara, D.M. (Eds.), Lead Absorption in Children: Management, Clinical, and Environmental Aspects. Urban and Schwarzenberg, Baltimore- Munich, pp. 11–20.

2.Varrica, D., Dongarra, G., Sabatino, G., Monna, F., 2003. Inorganic geochemistry of roadway dust from the metropolitan area of Palermo, Italy. Environmental Geology 44, 222–230.

3.Tokalioglu, S., Kartal, S., 2006. Multivariate analysis of the data and speciation of heavy metals in street dust samples from the Organized Industrial District in Kayseri (Turkey). Atmospheric Environment 40, 2797–2805.

4.Adriano, D.C., 1986. Trace Element in the Terrestrial Environment. Springer, Heidelberg.

5.Akhter, M.S. Madany, I.M. Heavy metals in strret and house dust in Bahrain. Water, Air & Soil Pollution. 1993, 66, 111-119.

6.Banerjee, A.D. Heavy metals levels and solid phase speciation in street dusts of Delhi, India. Environmental Pollution. 2003, 123, 95-105.

7.National ambient air quality monitoring series: NAQQMS/28/2006-2007. Urban air monitoring: a case study in Agra. CPCB, 2002-2006.

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I–P–5

Evaluation of Carcinogenic Potential of PAHs

In Indoor and Outdoor Sites of Mumbai City

Abba Elizabeth Joseph#, Seema Unnikrishnan# and Rakesh Kumar*

# National Institute of Industrial Engineering, Vihar Lake, Mumbai -400087

* National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,

89/B, Dr. A.B. Road, Mumbai -400018

Email : abba1@rediffmail.com, seemaunnikrishnan@gmail.com

Email: rakeshmee@rediffmail.com

Introduction

Ambient levels of fine particles in the environment cause adverse human health effects and climate change. Epidemiological studies also find an association between fine particles concentration and increased human health effects. The American Cancer Study, in particular, found lung cancer, cardiopulmonary and all-cause mortality to be significantly associated with exposure to PM2.5, after controlling for individual lifestyle and socioeconomic status indicators The outcome of the studies revealed that fine particle and sulfur oxides related pollution was associated with approximately 4%, 6% and 8% increase of all cause cardio pulmonary and lung cancer mortality respectively (Pope et.al., 2002). Fine particles have great impact on human health because of some organic compound proved to be mutagens or carcinogens i.e. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and unsaturated aldehydes (He et al., 2006). PAHs are organic compound constituting carbon and hydrogen, arranged in two or more aromatic rings. Incomplete biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion are their major sources (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998). Sixteen PAHs have been specified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) as priority pollutants. PAHs identified as Group A (known human) or B (probable human) carcinogens by US Environment Protection agency. These include benzo[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenzo [a,h]anthracene and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene.

The present study measure PAHs in fine particles at four sites indoors and outdoors Colaba_ control(C), Dadar_kerb(K), Khar_residential(R) and Mahul_industrial(I) in Mumbai city, India during during year 2007-2008. This paper makes an attempt to estimate carcinogenic potential of PAHs since health effects due to PAHs are cause of concern.

Methodology

A) Sample Collection and analysis :

The fine particles were measured using MiniVol PM2.5 Sampler (Make: Air Metrics) at the rate of 5 liters per minute for 24 hours on Pallflex Tissue Quartz filters, 47 mm. First carbon content was measured using DRI thermal optical analyzer and later subjected to

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PAH analysis. One composite sample of PAH in PM2.5 aerosol was analyzed at Desert Research Institute, NV, and USA. In-Injection Port Thermal Desorption and Subsequent Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry were analysis. Small strips of aerosol-laden filter materials are packed into a gas chromatography (GC) split/split less injector liner. The organic compounds on the filter were thermally desorbed in the injection port and focused onto the head of a GC column for subsequent separation and mass spectrometric detection. Using data collected with the mass spectrometer (MS, peak area of ions known to be present in the analytes and internal standards for the quantification process. For QA/QC, replicates at a rate of one every ten samples to ensure good instrument reproducibility and use certified standard solutions to check the calibration created using a six-point calibration curve from standards mixed in-house.

B) PAHs toxicity estimation:

The toxicity equivalency factor (TEF) methodology was developed by US-EPA to evaluate the toxicity and risks of a mixture of structurally related chemicals with common mechanism of action. A TEF is an estimate of the relative toxicity of a chemical compared to a reference chemical .Carcinogenic potential of PAHs is estimated with equivalent of Benzo

(a) pyrene. (BaPE) value is calculated with PAH concentrations weighted in relation to the carcinogenic potential of individual PAHs (Yassaa et al., 2001). BaPE was calculated using the following formula.

BaPE= 0.06(BaA) + 0.07(BbF) + 0.07(BkF) + BaP+ 0.6(DahA) +0.08(Icdp).

The coefficient represents carcinogenic potential of the PAH relative to that of BaPE. PAH concentration is in ng/m3

Further, lung cancer cases were estimated as per (Pengchai, 2009).

Annual number of lung cases (per million) = unit risk* sum BaP* residents(million) life expectancy.

Population was Ward population as per 2001 census. According to the Population Reference Bureau’s 2000 World Data Sheets, life expectancy at birth for Indians is between 60-61 years.http://www.indiatogether.org/health/infofiles/life.htm. WHO (1987) suggested the unit risk of 0.00008ng/m3 for a life time of PAHs exposure, assuming one was exposed to the average level of one unit BaP concentration(1ng/m3).

Results& Discussion

About 47 PAHs were identified including 15US EPA priority list of PAH at all the indoor and outdoor sites. Figure 1 and Table 1 gives Concentration of PAHs Considered for BaPE amd Carcinogenic Potential of PAHs and Total Concentration of PAHs in Mumbai CityCPCB has added annual standard of 1 ng/m3 for Benzo (a) pyrene as it is hazardous to health. EU also specified 1 ng/m3 for BaP and Newzealand regulated 3ng/ m3 as annual average standards.Amongst all the sites, the maximum concentration in both, ambient and indoor environments is observed in Khar with concentration of 175.8 ng/m3 and 134.2 ng/m3 respectively. Colaba has maximum I/O ratio of 2.1, indicating that at this site, apart from infiltration of outdoor air, there is significant contribution from indoor sources also, the concentration of total PAHs in Colaba indoor is higher than that observed at Mahul( Industrial) inspite of being a control area. BaP concentration in present study is

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high and looks difficult to to annual average standards. 24 hourly average standards are not available for BaP therefore present levels cannot be compared with annual standard.

On the basis of BaPE calculation, Khar has the maximum values of 18.8 and 13.6 for ambient and indoor sampling location respectively. This indicates that the concentration of carcinogenic PAHs is highest in Khar and is reflected in occurrence of highest annual number of lung cancer cases (16), in per million of population residing in this area.

Figure 1. Concentration of PAHs Considered for BaPE.

Table 1. Carcinogenic Potential of PAHs in Mumbai City.

Conclusion

Indoor and Outdoor sites in Mumbai show high concentration of PAHs. High indoor concentrations are likely to result in high individual exposures. This was a preliminary study in understanding the health effects of PAH in Mumbai city. Further research is being pursued to collect actual cancer data for the respective wards and correlate with PAH data. An empirical relationship can be developed for dose and response if time series data show the pattern of exposure and consequent risks.

References

1.Pope C. A., Burnett R. J., Michael T.., Eugenia E., Krewski D., Kazuhi Ku Ito. and Thurston D.G., 2002, Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality and Long Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution,

J. of American Medical Association, 287, 9, 1132-1141

2.Seinfeld J.H and Pandis S.N, 1998, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, John Wiley and Sons, Newyork, pp 700-764

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3.Yassaa N, Meklati B.Y, Cecinato A and Marino F, 2001, Particulates n-alkanes,n-alkanoic acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of Algiers city area. Atmos. Environ., 35, 1843- 1851.

5.http://www.indiatogether.org/health/infofiles/life.htm

6.World Health Organization, 1987, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Air quality guidelines for Europe, WHO Regional publications, European series: no 23, (pp. 105-107). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

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